Research progress on an underestimated pathogen: <i>Chlamydia psittaci</i>_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

MA Yiqun ¹ ,  LU Binghuai ^1,2,3

1. China-Japan Friendship School of Clinical Medicine, Peking University, Beijing 100029, P. R. China;
2. Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Department of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing 100029, P. R. China;
3. Beijing Key Laboratory of Surveillance, Early Warning and Pathogen Research on Emerging Infectious Diseases, Beijing 100013, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

LU Binghuai, Email: zs25041@126.com

Keywords：

Psittacosis; Chlamydia psittaci; pathogen diagnosis; epidemiology

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202502158

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Psittacosis is a zoonotic disease caused by Chlamydia psittaci, and currently has a high misdiagnosis rate among sporadic psittacosis patients worldwide. In recent years, increasing evidence indicates that psittacosis can be transmitted between individuals through various pathways, including transmission by asymptomatic carriers and even tertiary human-to-human transmission. Currently, there is insufficient attention to this pathogen both domestically and internationally, and relevant systematic research is rare. This article systematically elaborates on the molecular epidemiology and human-to-human transmission, clinical characteristics, advances in molecular detection technology, treatment, and vaccine development of psittacosis, providing scientific basis for early diagnosis and effective prevention and control.

Citation： MA Yiqun, LU Binghuai. Research progress on an underestimated pathogen: Chlamydia psittaci. West China Medical Journal, 2025, 40(8): 1197-1202. doi: 10.7507/1002-0179.202502158 Copy

1.	Beeckman DS, Vanrompay DC. Zoonotic Chlamydophila psittaci infections from a clinical perspective. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2009, 15(1): 11-17.
2.	Song L, Li Y, Liu G, et al. Genotyping of Chlamydophila psittaci strains derived from avian and mammalian species. Vet Res Commun, 2009, 33(6): 577-580.
3.	Sachse K, Laroucau K, Hotzel H, et al. Genotyping of Chlamydophila psittaci using a new DNA microarray assay based on sequence analysis of ompA genes. BMC Microbiol, 2008, 8: 63.
4.	Knittler MR, Sachse K. Chlamydia psittaci: update on an underestimated zoonotic agent. Pathog Dis, 2015, 73(1): 1-15.
5.	Qin XC, Huang J, Yang Z, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci genotype E/B strain circulating among geese in Lishui city, Zhejiang province, China. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2022, 11(1): 2715-2723.
6.	Liu S, Yang Y, Pang Z, et al. A cluster of two psittacosis cases among women farmers exposed to Chlamydia psittaci-infected domestic poultry in Zhejiang Province, China. Zoonoses Public Health, 2023, 70(1): 93-102.
7.	Hou L, Jia J, Qin X, et al. Prevalence and genotypes of Chlamydia psittaci in birds and related workers in three cities of China. PLoS One, 2024, 19(8): e0308532.
8.	Lu H, Yuan J, Wu Z, et al. Distribution of drug-resistant genes in alveolar lavage fluid from patients with psittacosis and traceability analysis of causative organisms. Front Microbiol, 2023, 14: 1182604.
9.	Wang Z, Chen C, Lu H, et al. Case report: clinical characteristics of two cases of pneumonia caused with different strains of Chlamydia psittaci. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2023, 13: 1086454.
10.	Pospischil A. From disease to etiology: historical aspects of Chlamydia-related diseases in animals and humans. Drugs Today (Barc), 2009, 45(Suppl B): 141-146.
11.	Broholm KA, Böttiger M, Jernelius H, et al. Ornithosis as a nosocomial infection. Scand J Infect Dis, 1977, 9(4): 263-267.
12.	Hughes C, Maharg P, Rosario P, et al. Possible nosocomial transmission of psittacosis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 1997, 18(3): 165-168.
13.	Ito I, Ishida T, Mishima M, et al. Familial cases of psittacosis: possible person-to-person transmission. Intern Med, 2002, 41(7): 580-583.
14.	McGuigan CC, McIntyre PG, Templeton K. Psittacosis outbreak in Tayside, Scotland, December 2011 to February 2012. Euro Surveill, 2012, 17(22): 20186.
15.	Wallensten A, Fredlund H, Runehagen A. Multiple human-to-human transmission from a severe case of psittacosis, Sweden, January-February 2013. Euro Surveill, 2014, 19(42): 20937.
16.	Zhang Z, Zhou H, Cao H, et al. Human-to-human transmission of Chlamydia psittaci in China, 2020: an epidemiological and aetiological investigation. Lancet Microbe, 2022, 3(7): e512-e520.
17.	Dembek ZF, Mothershead JL, Owens AN, et al. Psittacosis: an underappreciated and often undiagnosed disease. Pathogens, 2023, 12(9): 1165.
18.	Deng H, Shi Y, Xie M, et al. Diagnosis and treatment experience of Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia: a multicenter retrospective study in China. BMC Infect Dis, 2024, 24(1): 1333.
19.	沈凌, 田贤江, 梁荣章, 等. 鹦鹉热衣原体肺炎 48 例临床特征分析. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2021, 44(10): 886-891.
20.	Wu HH, Zhao PP, Wang XM, et al. Hearing loss as the first symptom of pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci: a case report and literature review. BMC Infect Dis, 2024, 24(1): 1314.
21.	Shi Y, Chen J, Shi X, et al. A case of Chlamydia psittaci caused severe pneumonia and meningitis diagnosed by metagenome next-generation sequencing and clinical analysis: a case report and literature review. BMC Infect Dis, 2021, 21(1): 621.
22.	Guo X, Zhu D, Chen H. Clinical features and risk factors of liver injury in patients with Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia- a retrospective analysis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2024, 13: 1320758.
23.	Wang L, Shi Z, Chen W, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by Chlamydia psittaci: a case report and review of the literature. Front Med (Lausanne), 2021, 8: 731047.
24.	Nieuwenhuizen AA, Dijkstra F, Notermans DW, et al. Laboratory methods for case finding in human psittacosis outbreaks: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis, 2018, 18(1): 442.
25.	Cui Z, Meng L. Psittacosis pneumonia: diagnosis, treatment and interhuman transmission. Int J Gen Med, 2023, 16: 1-6.
26.	Wolff BJ, Gaines A, Conley AB, et al. Multiplex real-time PCR assay for the detection of all Chlamydia species and simultaneous differentiation of C. psittaci and C. pneumoniae in human clinical specimens. Ann Lab Med, 2023, 43(4): 375-380.
27.	Pang Y, Cong F, Zhang X, et al. A recombinase polymerase amplification-based assay for rapid detection of Chlamydia psittaci. Poult Sci, 2021, 100(2): 585-591.
28.	Sahu R, Vishnuraj MR, Srinivas C, et al. Development and comparative evaluation of droplet digital PCR and quantitative PCR for the detection and quantification of Chlamydia psittaci. J Microbiol Methods, 2021, 190: 106318.
29.	Angen Ø, Johannesen TB, Petersen RF, et al. Development of a species-specific real-time PCR test for Chlamydia psittaci and its employment in the investigation of zoonotic transmission from racing pigeons in Denmark. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2021, 100(2): 115341.
30.	Chiu CY, Miller SA. Clinical metagenomics. Nat Rev Genet, 2019, 20(6): 341-355.
31.	Li N, Li S, Tan W, et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in the family outbreak of psittacosis: the first reported family outbreak of psittacosis in China under COVID-19. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2021, 10(1): 1418-1428.
32.	Gu L, Liu W, Ru M, et al. The application of metagenomic next-generation sequencing in diagnosing Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia: a report of five cases. BMC Pulm Med, 2020, 20(1): 65.
33.	Zhang H, Zhan D, Chen D, et al. Next-generation sequencing diagnosis of severe pneumonia from fulminant psittacosis with multiple organ failure: a case report and literature review. Ann Transl Med, 2020, 8(6): 401.
34.	Chen X, Cao K, Wei Y, et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in the diagnosis of severe pneumonias caused by Chlamydia psittaci. Infection, 2020, 48(4): 535-542.
35.	Jia Q, Sun J, Wang D, et al. Clinical features and prognostic predictors of C. psittaci pneumonia: a systematic review and individual patient meta-analysis. BMC Pulm Med, 2025, 25(1): 55.
36.	Shi L, Zhang D, Yang Q, et al. Distinction of clinical features and microbiological methods between Chlamydia psittaci and Legionella pneumophila pneumonia confirmed by metagenomic next-generation sequencing. Ann Med, 2024, 56(1): 2428433.
37.	Song L, Liang Q, Chen Y, et al. Clinical characterization and diagnosis of 14 patients with Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2025, 113(3): 116985.
38.	Chen Q, Yi J, Liu Y, et al. Clinical diagnostic value of targeted next-generation sequencing for infectious diseases (review). Mol Med Rep, 2024, 30(3): 153.
39.	Yan X, Fu H, Deng W, et al. Early and rapid diagnosis of Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia by tNGS in six patients: a case series. Front Med (Lausanne), 2024, 11: 1491838.
40.	Yu Y, Li M. Atypical pathogen community-acquired pneumonia: an analysis of clinical characteristics, drug treatment, and prognosis in the related patients. Mol Biol Rep, 2025, 52(1): 309.
41.	Ding Y, Jing C, Wei J, et al. Comparison of the diagnostic capabilities of tNGS and mNGS for pathogens causing lower respiratory tract infections: a prospective observational study. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2025, 15: 1578939.
42.	周闳远, 张健, 翁丹丹. 反复感染鹦鹉热衣原体肺炎 1 例. 中华劳动卫生职业病杂志, 2025, 43(3): 237-240.
43.	Wang DX, Xiao LX, Deng XY, et al. Omadacycline for the treatment of severe pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci complicated with acute respiratory distress syndrome during the COVID-19 pandemic. Front Med (Lausanne), 2024, 10: 1207534.
44.	Wang J, Dong S, Fang M, et al. Omadacycline for the treatment of severe Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia complicated with Guillain-Barre syndrome. Infect Drug Resist, 2024, 17: 81-87.
45.	Tantengco OAG. Gestational psittacosis: an emerging infection. Lancet Microbe, 2022, 3(10): e728.
46.	Ni Y, Zhong H, Gu Y, et al. Clinical features, treatment, and outcome of psittacosis pneumonia: a multicenter study. Open Forum Infect Dis, 2023, 10(2): ofac518.
47.	Liu X, Hu H, Liu J, et al. Physcion, a novel anthraquinone derivative against Chlamydia psittaci infection. Vet Microbiol, 2023, 279: 109664.
48.	Wang J, Wang B, Xiao J, et al. Chlamydia psittaci: a zoonotic pathogen causing avian chlamydiosis and psittacosis. Virulence, 2024, 15(1): 2428411.
49.	Liu J, Wang Y, Tang N, et al. CRISPR/Cas9-edited duck enteritis virus expressing Pmp17G of Chlamydia psittaci induced protective immunity in ducklings. Pathog Dis, 2024, 82: ftae027.
50.	Li Y, Zheng K, Tan Y, et al. A recombinant multi-epitope peptide vaccine based on MOMP and CPSIT_p6 protein protects against Chlamydia psittaci lung infection. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2019, 103(2): 941-952.
51.	Phillips S, Quigley BL, Timms P. Seventy years of chlamydia vaccine research - limitations of the past and directions for the future. Front Microbiol, 2019, 10: 70.
52.	Li Q, Chen S, Yan Z, et al. A novel intranasal vaccine with PmpGs + MOMP induces robust protections both in respiratory tract and genital system posting Chlamydia psittaci infection. Front Vet Sci, 2022, 9: 855447.
53.	Bannantine JP, Griffiths RS, Viratyosin W, et al. A secondary structure motif predictive of protein localization to the chlamydial inclusion membrane. Cell Microbiol, 2000, 2(1): 35-47.
54.	Wang C, Li Y, Wang S, et al. Evaluation of a tandem Chlamydia psittaci Pgp3 multiepitope peptide vaccine against a pulmonary chlamydial challenge in mice. Microb Pathog, 2020, 147: 104256.
55.	De Meyst A, Van Mieghem J, Chiers K, et al. mRNA galsomes vaccine protects budgerigars against virulent Chlamydia psittaci challenge. Vaccines (Basel), 2025, 13(2): 206.
56.	Gorman J, Cook A, Ferguson C, et al. Pet birds and risks of respiratory disease in Australia: a review. Aust N Z J Public Health, 2009, 33(2): 167-172.
57.	Liu S, Cui Z, Carr MJ, et al. Chlamydia psittaci should be a notifiable infectious disease everywhere. Lancet Microbe, 2023, 4(2): e62-e63.
58.	Cong W, Huang SY, Zhang XY, et al. Seroprevalence of Chlamydia psittaci infection in market-sold adult chickens, ducks and pigeons in north-western China. J Med Microbiol, 2013, 62(8): 1211-1214.

1. Beeckman DS, Vanrompay DC. Zoonotic Chlamydophila psittaci infections from a clinical perspective. Clin Microbiol Infect, 2009, 15(1): 11-17.
2. Song L, Li Y, Liu G, et al. Genotyping of Chlamydophila psittaci strains derived from avian and mammalian species. Vet Res Commun, 2009, 33(6): 577-580.
3. Sachse K, Laroucau K, Hotzel H, et al. Genotyping of Chlamydophila psittaci using a new DNA microarray assay based on sequence analysis of ompA genes. BMC Microbiol, 2008, 8: 63.
4. Knittler MR, Sachse K. Chlamydia psittaci: update on an underestimated zoonotic agent. Pathog Dis, 2015, 73(1): 1-15.
5. Qin XC, Huang J, Yang Z, et al. Severe community-acquired pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci genotype E/B strain circulating among geese in Lishui city, Zhejiang province, China. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2022, 11(1): 2715-2723.
6. Liu S, Yang Y, Pang Z, et al. A cluster of two psittacosis cases among women farmers exposed to Chlamydia psittaci-infected domestic poultry in Zhejiang Province, China. Zoonoses Public Health, 2023, 70(1): 93-102.
7. Hou L, Jia J, Qin X, et al. Prevalence and genotypes of Chlamydia psittaci in birds and related workers in three cities of China. PLoS One, 2024, 19(8): e0308532.
8. Lu H, Yuan J, Wu Z, et al. Distribution of drug-resistant genes in alveolar lavage fluid from patients with psittacosis and traceability analysis of causative organisms. Front Microbiol, 2023, 14: 1182604.
9. Wang Z, Chen C, Lu H, et al. Case report: clinical characteristics of two cases of pneumonia caused with different strains of Chlamydia psittaci. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2023, 13: 1086454.
10. Pospischil A. From disease to etiology: historical aspects of Chlamydia-related diseases in animals and humans. Drugs Today (Barc), 2009, 45(Suppl B): 141-146.
11. Broholm KA, Böttiger M, Jernelius H, et al. Ornithosis as a nosocomial infection. Scand J Infect Dis, 1977, 9(4): 263-267.
12. Hughes C, Maharg P, Rosario P, et al. Possible nosocomial transmission of psittacosis. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol, 1997, 18(3): 165-168.
13. Ito I, Ishida T, Mishima M, et al. Familial cases of psittacosis: possible person-to-person transmission. Intern Med, 2002, 41(7): 580-583.
14. McGuigan CC, McIntyre PG, Templeton K. Psittacosis outbreak in Tayside, Scotland, December 2011 to February 2012. Euro Surveill, 2012, 17(22): 20186.
15. Wallensten A, Fredlund H, Runehagen A. Multiple human-to-human transmission from a severe case of psittacosis, Sweden, January-February 2013. Euro Surveill, 2014, 19(42): 20937.
16. Zhang Z, Zhou H, Cao H, et al. Human-to-human transmission of Chlamydia psittaci in China, 2020: an epidemiological and aetiological investigation. Lancet Microbe, 2022, 3(7): e512-e520.
17. Dembek ZF, Mothershead JL, Owens AN, et al. Psittacosis: an underappreciated and often undiagnosed disease. Pathogens, 2023, 12(9): 1165.
18. Deng H, Shi Y, Xie M, et al. Diagnosis and treatment experience of Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia: a multicenter retrospective study in China. BMC Infect Dis, 2024, 24(1): 1333.
19. 沈凌, 田贤江, 梁荣章, 等. 鹦鹉热衣原体肺炎 48 例临床特征分析. 中华结核和呼吸杂志, 2021, 44(10): 886-891.
20. Wu HH, Zhao PP, Wang XM, et al. Hearing loss as the first symptom of pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci: a case report and literature review. BMC Infect Dis, 2024, 24(1): 1314.
21. Shi Y, Chen J, Shi X, et al. A case of Chlamydia psittaci caused severe pneumonia and meningitis diagnosed by metagenome next-generation sequencing and clinical analysis: a case report and literature review. BMC Infect Dis, 2021, 21(1): 621.
22. Guo X, Zhu D, Chen H. Clinical features and risk factors of liver injury in patients with Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia- a retrospective analysis. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2024, 13: 1320758.
23. Wang L, Shi Z, Chen W, et al. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by Chlamydia psittaci: a case report and review of the literature. Front Med (Lausanne), 2021, 8: 731047.
24. Nieuwenhuizen AA, Dijkstra F, Notermans DW, et al. Laboratory methods for case finding in human psittacosis outbreaks: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis, 2018, 18(1): 442.
25. Cui Z, Meng L. Psittacosis pneumonia: diagnosis, treatment and interhuman transmission. Int J Gen Med, 2023, 16: 1-6.
26. Wolff BJ, Gaines A, Conley AB, et al. Multiplex real-time PCR assay for the detection of all Chlamydia species and simultaneous differentiation of C. psittaci and C. pneumoniae in human clinical specimens. Ann Lab Med, 2023, 43(4): 375-380.
27. Pang Y, Cong F, Zhang X, et al. A recombinase polymerase amplification-based assay for rapid detection of Chlamydia psittaci. Poult Sci, 2021, 100(2): 585-591.
28. Sahu R, Vishnuraj MR, Srinivas C, et al. Development and comparative evaluation of droplet digital PCR and quantitative PCR for the detection and quantification of Chlamydia psittaci. J Microbiol Methods, 2021, 190: 106318.
29. Angen Ø, Johannesen TB, Petersen RF, et al. Development of a species-specific real-time PCR test for Chlamydia psittaci and its employment in the investigation of zoonotic transmission from racing pigeons in Denmark. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2021, 100(2): 115341.
30. Chiu CY, Miller SA. Clinical metagenomics. Nat Rev Genet, 2019, 20(6): 341-355.
31. Li N, Li S, Tan W, et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in the family outbreak of psittacosis: the first reported family outbreak of psittacosis in China under COVID-19. Emerg Microbes Infect, 2021, 10(1): 1418-1428.
32. Gu L, Liu W, Ru M, et al. The application of metagenomic next-generation sequencing in diagnosing Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia: a report of five cases. BMC Pulm Med, 2020, 20(1): 65.
33. Zhang H, Zhan D, Chen D, et al. Next-generation sequencing diagnosis of severe pneumonia from fulminant psittacosis with multiple organ failure: a case report and literature review. Ann Transl Med, 2020, 8(6): 401.
34. Chen X, Cao K, Wei Y, et al. Metagenomic next-generation sequencing in the diagnosis of severe pneumonias caused by Chlamydia psittaci. Infection, 2020, 48(4): 535-542.
35. Jia Q, Sun J, Wang D, et al. Clinical features and prognostic predictors of C. psittaci pneumonia: a systematic review and individual patient meta-analysis. BMC Pulm Med, 2025, 25(1): 55.
36. Shi L, Zhang D, Yang Q, et al. Distinction of clinical features and microbiological methods between Chlamydia psittaci and Legionella pneumophila pneumonia confirmed by metagenomic next-generation sequencing. Ann Med, 2024, 56(1): 2428433.
37. Song L, Liang Q, Chen Y, et al. Clinical characterization and diagnosis of 14 patients with Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis, 2025, 113(3): 116985.
38. Chen Q, Yi J, Liu Y, et al. Clinical diagnostic value of targeted next-generation sequencing for infectious diseases (review). Mol Med Rep, 2024, 30(3): 153.
39. Yan X, Fu H, Deng W, et al. Early and rapid diagnosis of Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia by tNGS in six patients: a case series. Front Med (Lausanne), 2024, 11: 1491838.
40. Yu Y, Li M. Atypical pathogen community-acquired pneumonia: an analysis of clinical characteristics, drug treatment, and prognosis in the related patients. Mol Biol Rep, 2025, 52(1): 309.
41. Ding Y, Jing C, Wei J, et al. Comparison of the diagnostic capabilities of tNGS and mNGS for pathogens causing lower respiratory tract infections: a prospective observational study. Front Cell Infect Microbiol, 2025, 15: 1578939.
42. 周闳远, 张健, 翁丹丹. 反复感染鹦鹉热衣原体肺炎 1 例. 中华劳动卫生职业病杂志, 2025, 43(3): 237-240.
43. Wang DX, Xiao LX, Deng XY, et al. Omadacycline for the treatment of severe pneumonia caused by Chlamydia psittaci complicated with acute respiratory distress syndrome during the COVID-19 pandemic. Front Med (Lausanne), 2024, 10: 1207534.
44. Wang J, Dong S, Fang M, et al. Omadacycline for the treatment of severe Chlamydia psittaci pneumonia complicated with Guillain-Barre syndrome. Infect Drug Resist, 2024, 17: 81-87.
45. Tantengco OAG. Gestational psittacosis: an emerging infection. Lancet Microbe, 2022, 3(10): e728.
46. Ni Y, Zhong H, Gu Y, et al. Clinical features, treatment, and outcome of psittacosis pneumonia: a multicenter study. Open Forum Infect Dis, 2023, 10(2): ofac518.
47. Liu X, Hu H, Liu J, et al. Physcion, a novel anthraquinone derivative against Chlamydia psittaci infection. Vet Microbiol, 2023, 279: 109664.
48. Wang J, Wang B, Xiao J, et al. Chlamydia psittaci: a zoonotic pathogen causing avian chlamydiosis and psittacosis. Virulence, 2024, 15(1): 2428411.
49. Liu J, Wang Y, Tang N, et al. CRISPR/Cas9-edited duck enteritis virus expressing Pmp17G of Chlamydia psittaci induced protective immunity in ducklings. Pathog Dis, 2024, 82: ftae027.
50. Li Y, Zheng K, Tan Y, et al. A recombinant multi-epitope peptide vaccine based on MOMP and CPSIT_p6 protein protects against Chlamydia psittaci lung infection. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol, 2019, 103(2): 941-952.
51. Phillips S, Quigley BL, Timms P. Seventy years of chlamydia vaccine research - limitations of the past and directions for the future. Front Microbiol, 2019, 10: 70.
52. Li Q, Chen S, Yan Z, et al. A novel intranasal vaccine with PmpGs + MOMP induces robust protections both in respiratory tract and genital system posting Chlamydia psittaci infection. Front Vet Sci, 2022, 9: 855447.
53. Bannantine JP, Griffiths RS, Viratyosin W, et al. A secondary structure motif predictive of protein localization to the chlamydial inclusion membrane. Cell Microbiol, 2000, 2(1): 35-47.
54. Wang C, Li Y, Wang S, et al. Evaluation of a tandem Chlamydia psittaci Pgp3 multiepitope peptide vaccine against a pulmonary chlamydial challenge in mice. Microb Pathog, 2020, 147: 104256.
55. De Meyst A, Van Mieghem J, Chiers K, et al. mRNA galsomes vaccine protects budgerigars against virulent Chlamydia psittaci challenge. Vaccines (Basel), 2025, 13(2): 206.
56. Gorman J, Cook A, Ferguson C, et al. Pet birds and risks of respiratory disease in Australia: a review. Aust N Z J Public Health, 2009, 33(2): 167-172.
57. Liu S, Cui Z, Carr MJ, et al. Chlamydia psittaci should be a notifiable infectious disease everywhere. Lancet Microbe, 2023, 4(2): e62-e63.
58. Cong W, Huang SY, Zhang XY, et al. Seroprevalence of Chlamydia psittaci infection in market-sold adult chickens, ducks and pigeons in north-western China. J Med Microbiol, 2013, 62(8): 1211-1214.

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Research progress on an underestimated pathogen: Chlamydia psittaci

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