Research progress on exercise-mediated regulation of macrophages in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury mechanisms_West China Medical Journal

Authors：

XING Kebin ¹ , PEI Fei ² , WANG Hongyan ¹ ,  WANG Yan ²

1. Graduate School, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin 150040, Heilongjiang, P. R. China;
2. Rehabilitation Center, the Second Hospital Affiliated to Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin 150001, Heilongjiang, P. R. China;

Corresponding author：

WANG Yan, Email: swallow-1113@163.com

Keywords：

Cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury; exercise; macrophage; inflammation

DOI：

10.7507/1002-0179.202505144

Video：

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Abstract Full text Figures/Tables Video References Cited by

Macrophages can activate inflammatory responses after cerebral ischemic injury, aggravate tissue damage or alleviate inflammatory responses, and promote functional recovery of the body. This biphasic effect is related to its cell type. Exercise can affect macrophage phenotype transformation to exert neuroprotective effects, but this effect is closely related to the mode, intensity, and duration of exercise. This article systematically explores the regulatory mechanisms of different exercise regimens on macrophages by reviewing relevant literature in recent years, aiming to provide theoretical basis for clinical development of exercise regimens, prevention and treatment of cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury mechanisms.

1.	Saini V, Guada L, Yavagal DR. Global epidemiology of stroke and access to acute ischemic stroke interventions. Neurology, 2021, 97(Suppl 2): S6-S16.
2.	Cox N, Pokrovskii M, Vicario R, et al. Origins, biology, and diseases of tissue macrophages. Annu Rev Immunol, 2021, 39: 313-344.
3.	Jin Y, Pu T, Zhang T, et al. DHA plays a protective role in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by affecting macrophage/microglia type polarization. Brain Res, 2025, 1846: 149278.
4.	Abdelaal SM, Abdel Rahman MM, Mahmoud LM, et al. Combined swimming with melatonin protects against behavioural deficit in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury induced rats associated with modulation of Mst1-MAPK-ERK signalling pathway. Arch Physiol Biochem, 2025, 131(2): 119-134.
5.	Li M, Tang H, Li Z, et al. Emerging treatment strategies for cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Neuroscience, 2022, 507: 112-124.
6.	Liu L, Tang J, Liang X, et al. Running exercise alleviates hippocampal neuroinflammation and shifts the balance of microglial M1/M2 polarization through adiponectin/AdipoR1 pathway activation in mice exposed to chronic unpredictable stress. Mol Psychiatry, 2024, 29(7): 2031-2042.
7.	Mizokami T, Suzuki K. Involvement of neutrophils and macrophages in exhaustive exercise-induced liver, kidney, heart, and lung injuries. Exerc Immunol Rev, 2024, 30: 49-62.
8.	Voskoboynik Y, McCulloch AD, Sahoo D. Macrophages on the run: exercise balances macrophage polarization for improved health. Mol Metab, 2024, 90: 102058.
9.	Gerganova G, Riddell A, Miller AA. CNS border-associated macrophages in the homeostatic and ischaemic brain. Pharmacol Ther, 2022, 240: 108220.
10.	Zhang M, Guo B, Zhang X, et al. IFP35, a novel DAMP, aggravates neuroinflammation following acute ischemic stroke via TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling. J Neuroinflammation, 2025, 22(1): 164.
11.	Lee SW, Song DJ, Ryu HS, et al. Systemic macrophage depletion attenuates infarct size in an experimental mouse model of stroke. J Cerebrovasc Endovasc Neurosurg, 2021, 23(4): 304-313.
12.	Zhao X, Eyo UB, Murugan M, et al. Microglial interactions with the neurovascular system in physiology and pathology. Dev Neurobiol, 2018, 78(6): 604-617.
13.	Askenase MH, Sansing LH. Stages of the inflammatory response in pathology and tissue repair after intracerebral hemorrhage. Semin Neurol, 2016, 36(3): 288-297.
14.	Zheng K, Lin L, Jiang W, et al. Single-cell RNA-seq reveals the transcriptional landscape in ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 2022, 42(1): 56-73.
15.	Lund H, Hunt MA, Kurtović Z, et al. CD163⁺ macrophages monitor enhanced permeability at the blood-dorsal root ganglion barrier. J Exp Med, 2024, 221(2): e20230675.
16.	Lazarov T, Juarez-Carreño S, Cox N, et al. Physiology and diseases of tissue-resident macrophages. Nature, 2023, 618(7966): 698-707.
17.	Alsbrook DL, Di Napoli M, Bhatia K, et al. Neuroinflammation in acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 2023, 23(8): 407-431.
18.	Hsieh WY, Zhou QD, York AG, et al. Toll-like receptors induce signal-specific reprogramming of the macrophage lipidome. Cell Metab, 2020, 32(1): 128-143. e5.
19.	Li X, Liu Y, Tang Y, et al. Transformation of macrophages into myofibroblasts in fibrosis-related diseases: emerging biological concepts and potential mechanism. Front Immunol, 2024, 15: 1474688.
20.	Gharavi AT, Hanjani NA, Movahed E, et al. The role of macrophage subtypes and exosomes in immunomodulation. Cell Mol Biol Lett, 2022, 27(1): 83.
21.	Wang C, Ma C, Gong L, et al. Macrophage polarization and its role in liver disease. Front Immunol, 2021, 12: 803037.
22.	Paolicelli RC, Sierra A, Stevens B, et al. Microglia states and nomenclature: a field at its crossroads. Neuron, 2022, 110(21): 3458-3483.
23.	Chen T, Li Z, Li S, et al. Cycloastragenol suppresses M1 and promotes M2 polarization in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells and ischemic stroke mice. Int Immunopharmacol, 2022, 113(Pt A): 109290.
24.	Zhang Y, Lian L, Fu R, et al. Microglia: the hub of intercellular communication in ischemic stroke. Front Cell Neurosci, 2022, 16: 889442.
25.	Peng Y, Zhou M, Yang H, et al. Regulatory mechanism of M1/M2 macrophage polarization in the development of autoimmune diseases. Mediators Inflamm, 2023, 2023: 8821610.
26.	Ramírez-Carreto RJ, Rodríguez-Cortés YM, Torres-Guerrero H, et al. Possible implications of obesity-primed microglia that could contribute to stroke-associated damage. Cell Mol Neurobiol, 2023, 43(6): 2473-2490.
27.	Sun K, Li YY, Jin J. A double-edged sword of immuno-microenvironment in cardiac homeostasis and injury repair. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2021, 6(1): 79.
28.	Guo S, Huang Y, Zhang Y, et al. Impacts of exercise interventions on different diseases and organ functions in mice. J Sport Health Sci, 2020, 9(1): 53-73.
29.	Coates AM, Joyner MJ, Little JP, et al. A perspective on high-intensity interval training for performance and health. Sports Med, 2023, 53(Suppl 1): 85-96.
30.	Luo L, Liu M, Xie H, et al. High-intensity interval training improves physical function, prevents muscle loss, and modulates macrophage-mediated inflammation in skeletal muscle of cerebral ischemic mice. Mediators Inflamm, 2021, 2021: 1849428.
31.	Guo Y, Zhang Q, Yang D, et al. HIIT promotes M2 macrophage polarization and sympathetic nerve density to induce adipose tissue browning in T2DM mice. Biomolecules, 2024, 14(3): 246.
32.	Gou X, Xu D, Li F, et al. Pyroptosis in stroke-new insights into disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. J Physiol Biochem, 2021, 77(4): 511-529.
33.	Zhao Y, He X, Yang X, et al. CircFndc3b mediates exercise-induced neuroprotection by mitigating microglial/macrophage pyroptosis via the ENO1/KLF2 axis in stroke mice. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2025, 12(1): e2403818.
34.	Liu MX, Luo L, Fu JH, et al. Exercise-induced neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury is mediated via alleviating inflammasome-induced pyroptosis. Exp Neurol, 2022, 349: 113952.
35.	Terashi T, Otsuka S, Takada S, et al. Neuroprotective effects of different frequency preconditioning exercise on neuronal apoptosis after focal brain ischemia in rats. Neurol Res, 2019, 41(6): 510-518.
36.	Zaychik Y, Fainstein N, Touloumi O, et al. High-intensity exercise training protects the brain against autoimmune neuroinflammation: regulation of microglial redox and pro-inflammatory functions. Front Cell Neurosci, 2021, 15: 640724.
37.	Zhu L, Ye T, Tang Q, et al. Exercise preconditioning regulates the toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-κB signaling pathway and reduces cerebral ischemia/reperfusion inflammatory injury: a study in rats. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis, 2016, 25(11): 2770-2779.
38.	Gao ZK, Shen XY, Han Y, et al. Pre-ischemic exercise prevents inflammation and apoptosis by inhibiting MAPK pathway in ischemic stroke. Transl Neurosci, 2022, 13(1): 495-505.
39.	Hirao H, Nakamura K, Kupiec-Weglinski JW, et al. Liver ischaemia-reperfusion injury: a new understanding of the role of innate immunity. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2022, 19(4): 239-256.
40.	Chang MC, Park CR, Rhie SH, et al. Early treadmill exercise increases macrophage migration inhibitory factor expression after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Neural Regen Res, 2019, 14(7): 1230-1236.
41.	Kawanishi M, Kami K, Nishimura Y, et al. Exercise‐induced increase in M2 macrophages accelerates wound healing in young mice. Physiol Rep, 2022, 10(19): e15447.
42.	Lu Y, Dong Y, Tucker D, et al. Treadmill exercise exerts neuroprotection and regulates microglial polarization and oxidative stress in a streptozotocin-induced rat model of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis, 2017, 56(4): 1469-1484.
43.	Kawanishi N, Yano H, Yokogawa Y, et al. Exercise training inhibits inflammation in adipose tissue via both suppression of macrophage infiltration and acceleration of phenotypic switching from M1 to M2 macrophages in high-fat-diet-induced obese mice. Exerc Immunol Rev, 2010, 16: 105-106.
44.	Wang W, Lv Z, Gao J, et al. Treadmill exercise alleviates neuronal damage by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome and microglial activation in the MPTP mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Brain Res Bull, 2021, 174: 349-358.
45.	Nakanishi K, Sakakima H, Norimatsu K, et al. Effect of low-intensity motor balance and coordination exercise on cognitive functions, hippocampal Aβ deposition, neuronal loss, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Neurol, 2021, 337: 113590.
46.	Luo F, Zhu M, Lv K, et al. Treadmill training attenuates pyroptosis in rats with cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Iran J Basic Med Sci, 2022, 25(10): 1215.
47.	Jiang XH, Li HF, Chen ML, et al. Treadmill exercise exerts a synergistic effect with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes on neuronal apoptosis and synaptic-axonal remodeling. Neural Regen Res, 2023, 18(6): 1293-1299.
48.	Bobinski F, Teixeira JM, Sluka KA, et al. Interleukin-4 mediates the analgesia produced by low-intensity exercise in mice with neuropathic pain. Pain, 2018, 159(3): 437-450.
49.	Li DJ, Li YH, Yuan HB, et al. The novel exercise-induced hormone irisin protects against neuronal injury via activation of the Akt and ERK1/2 signaling pathways and contributes to the neuroprotection of physical exercise in cerebral ischemia. Metabolism, 2017, 68: 31-42.
50.	Zhou D, Zhang M, Min L, et al. Cerebral ischemia‐reperfusion is modulated by macrophage‐stimulating 1 through the MAPK‐ERK signaling pathway. J Cell Physiol, 2020, 235(10): 7067-7080.
51.	Baek KW, Lee DI, Jeong MJ, et al. Effects of lifelong spontaneous exercise on the M1/M2 macrophage polarization ratio and gene expression in adipose tissue of super-aged mice. Exp Gerontol, 2020, 141: 111091.
52.	Tamakoshi K, Maeda M, Murohashi N, et al. Effect of exercise from a very early stage after intracerebral hemorrhage on microglial and macrophage reactivity states in rats. Neuroreport, 2022, 33(7): 304-311.
53.	Li F, Geng X, Huber C, et al. In search of a dose: the functional and molecular effects of exercise on post-stroke rehabilitation in rats. Front Cell Neurosci, 2020, 14: 186.
54.	Lu J, Wang J, Yu L, et al. Treadmill exercise attenuates cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury by promoting activation of M2 microglia via upregulation of interleukin-4. Front Cardiovasc Med, 2021, 8: 735485.
55.	Zhang L, Yang X, Yin M, et al. An animal trial on the optimal time and intensity of exercise after stroke. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2020, 52(8): 1699-1709.

1. Saini V, Guada L, Yavagal DR. Global epidemiology of stroke and access to acute ischemic stroke interventions. Neurology, 2021, 97(Suppl 2): S6-S16.
2. Cox N, Pokrovskii M, Vicario R, et al. Origins, biology, and diseases of tissue macrophages. Annu Rev Immunol, 2021, 39: 313-344.
3. Jin Y, Pu T, Zhang T, et al. DHA plays a protective role in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by affecting macrophage/microglia type polarization. Brain Res, 2025, 1846: 149278.
4. Abdelaal SM, Abdel Rahman MM, Mahmoud LM, et al. Combined swimming with melatonin protects against behavioural deficit in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury induced rats associated with modulation of Mst1-MAPK-ERK signalling pathway. Arch Physiol Biochem, 2025, 131(2): 119-134.
5. Li M, Tang H, Li Z, et al. Emerging treatment strategies for cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Neuroscience, 2022, 507: 112-124.
6. Liu L, Tang J, Liang X, et al. Running exercise alleviates hippocampal neuroinflammation and shifts the balance of microglial M1/M2 polarization through adiponectin/AdipoR1 pathway activation in mice exposed to chronic unpredictable stress. Mol Psychiatry, 2024, 29(7): 2031-2042.
7. Mizokami T, Suzuki K. Involvement of neutrophils and macrophages in exhaustive exercise-induced liver, kidney, heart, and lung injuries. Exerc Immunol Rev, 2024, 30: 49-62.
8. Voskoboynik Y, McCulloch AD, Sahoo D. Macrophages on the run: exercise balances macrophage polarization for improved health. Mol Metab, 2024, 90: 102058.
9. Gerganova G, Riddell A, Miller AA. CNS border-associated macrophages in the homeostatic and ischaemic brain. Pharmacol Ther, 2022, 240: 108220.
10. Zhang M, Guo B, Zhang X, et al. IFP35, a novel DAMP, aggravates neuroinflammation following acute ischemic stroke via TLR4/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling. J Neuroinflammation, 2025, 22(1): 164.
11. Lee SW, Song DJ, Ryu HS, et al. Systemic macrophage depletion attenuates infarct size in an experimental mouse model of stroke. J Cerebrovasc Endovasc Neurosurg, 2021, 23(4): 304-313.
12. Zhao X, Eyo UB, Murugan M, et al. Microglial interactions with the neurovascular system in physiology and pathology. Dev Neurobiol, 2018, 78(6): 604-617.
13. Askenase MH, Sansing LH. Stages of the inflammatory response in pathology and tissue repair after intracerebral hemorrhage. Semin Neurol, 2016, 36(3): 288-297.
14. Zheng K, Lin L, Jiang W, et al. Single-cell RNA-seq reveals the transcriptional landscape in ischemic stroke. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab, 2022, 42(1): 56-73.
15. Lund H, Hunt MA, Kurtović Z, et al. CD163⁺ macrophages monitor enhanced permeability at the blood-dorsal root ganglion barrier. J Exp Med, 2024, 221(2): e20230675.
16. Lazarov T, Juarez-Carreño S, Cox N, et al. Physiology and diseases of tissue-resident macrophages. Nature, 2023, 618(7966): 698-707.
17. Alsbrook DL, Di Napoli M, Bhatia K, et al. Neuroinflammation in acute ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep, 2023, 23(8): 407-431.
18. Hsieh WY, Zhou QD, York AG, et al. Toll-like receptors induce signal-specific reprogramming of the macrophage lipidome. Cell Metab, 2020, 32(1): 128-143. e5.
19. Li X, Liu Y, Tang Y, et al. Transformation of macrophages into myofibroblasts in fibrosis-related diseases: emerging biological concepts and potential mechanism. Front Immunol, 2024, 15: 1474688.
20. Gharavi AT, Hanjani NA, Movahed E, et al. The role of macrophage subtypes and exosomes in immunomodulation. Cell Mol Biol Lett, 2022, 27(1): 83.
21. Wang C, Ma C, Gong L, et al. Macrophage polarization and its role in liver disease. Front Immunol, 2021, 12: 803037.
22. Paolicelli RC, Sierra A, Stevens B, et al. Microglia states and nomenclature: a field at its crossroads. Neuron, 2022, 110(21): 3458-3483.
23. Chen T, Li Z, Li S, et al. Cycloastragenol suppresses M1 and promotes M2 polarization in LPS-stimulated BV-2 cells and ischemic stroke mice. Int Immunopharmacol, 2022, 113(Pt A): 109290.
24. Zhang Y, Lian L, Fu R, et al. Microglia: the hub of intercellular communication in ischemic stroke. Front Cell Neurosci, 2022, 16: 889442.
25. Peng Y, Zhou M, Yang H, et al. Regulatory mechanism of M1/M2 macrophage polarization in the development of autoimmune diseases. Mediators Inflamm, 2023, 2023: 8821610.
26. Ramírez-Carreto RJ, Rodríguez-Cortés YM, Torres-Guerrero H, et al. Possible implications of obesity-primed microglia that could contribute to stroke-associated damage. Cell Mol Neurobiol, 2023, 43(6): 2473-2490.
27. Sun K, Li YY, Jin J. A double-edged sword of immuno-microenvironment in cardiac homeostasis and injury repair. Signal Transduct Target Ther, 2021, 6(1): 79.
28. Guo S, Huang Y, Zhang Y, et al. Impacts of exercise interventions on different diseases and organ functions in mice. J Sport Health Sci, 2020, 9(1): 53-73.
29. Coates AM, Joyner MJ, Little JP, et al. A perspective on high-intensity interval training for performance and health. Sports Med, 2023, 53(Suppl 1): 85-96.
30. Luo L, Liu M, Xie H, et al. High-intensity interval training improves physical function, prevents muscle loss, and modulates macrophage-mediated inflammation in skeletal muscle of cerebral ischemic mice. Mediators Inflamm, 2021, 2021: 1849428.
31. Guo Y, Zhang Q, Yang D, et al. HIIT promotes M2 macrophage polarization and sympathetic nerve density to induce adipose tissue browning in T2DM mice. Biomolecules, 2024, 14(3): 246.
32. Gou X, Xu D, Li F, et al. Pyroptosis in stroke-new insights into disease mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. J Physiol Biochem, 2021, 77(4): 511-529.
33. Zhao Y, He X, Yang X, et al. CircFndc3b mediates exercise-induced neuroprotection by mitigating microglial/macrophage pyroptosis via the ENO1/KLF2 axis in stroke mice. Adv Sci (Weinh), 2025, 12(1): e2403818.
34. Liu MX, Luo L, Fu JH, et al. Exercise-induced neuroprotection against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury is mediated via alleviating inflammasome-induced pyroptosis. Exp Neurol, 2022, 349: 113952.
35. Terashi T, Otsuka S, Takada S, et al. Neuroprotective effects of different frequency preconditioning exercise on neuronal apoptosis after focal brain ischemia in rats. Neurol Res, 2019, 41(6): 510-518.
36. Zaychik Y, Fainstein N, Touloumi O, et al. High-intensity exercise training protects the brain against autoimmune neuroinflammation: regulation of microglial redox and pro-inflammatory functions. Front Cell Neurosci, 2021, 15: 640724.
37. Zhu L, Ye T, Tang Q, et al. Exercise preconditioning regulates the toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-κB signaling pathway and reduces cerebral ischemia/reperfusion inflammatory injury: a study in rats. J Stroke Cerebrovasc Dis, 2016, 25(11): 2770-2779.
38. Gao ZK, Shen XY, Han Y, et al. Pre-ischemic exercise prevents inflammation and apoptosis by inhibiting MAPK pathway in ischemic stroke. Transl Neurosci, 2022, 13(1): 495-505.
39. Hirao H, Nakamura K, Kupiec-Weglinski JW, et al. Liver ischaemia-reperfusion injury: a new understanding of the role of innate immunity. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2022, 19(4): 239-256.
40. Chang MC, Park CR, Rhie SH, et al. Early treadmill exercise increases macrophage migration inhibitory factor expression after cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. Neural Regen Res, 2019, 14(7): 1230-1236.
41. Kawanishi M, Kami K, Nishimura Y, et al. Exercise‐induced increase in M2 macrophages accelerates wound healing in young mice. Physiol Rep, 2022, 10(19): e15447.
42. Lu Y, Dong Y, Tucker D, et al. Treadmill exercise exerts neuroprotection and regulates microglial polarization and oxidative stress in a streptozotocin-induced rat model of sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis, 2017, 56(4): 1469-1484.
43. Kawanishi N, Yano H, Yokogawa Y, et al. Exercise training inhibits inflammation in adipose tissue via both suppression of macrophage infiltration and acceleration of phenotypic switching from M1 to M2 macrophages in high-fat-diet-induced obese mice. Exerc Immunol Rev, 2010, 16: 105-106.
44. Wang W, Lv Z, Gao J, et al. Treadmill exercise alleviates neuronal damage by suppressing NLRP3 inflammasome and microglial activation in the MPTP mouse model of Parkinson’s disease. Brain Res Bull, 2021, 174: 349-358.
45. Nakanishi K, Sakakima H, Norimatsu K, et al. Effect of low-intensity motor balance and coordination exercise on cognitive functions, hippocampal Aβ deposition, neuronal loss, neuroinflammation, and oxidative stress in a mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Exp Neurol, 2021, 337: 113590.
46. Luo F, Zhu M, Lv K, et al. Treadmill training attenuates pyroptosis in rats with cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Iran J Basic Med Sci, 2022, 25(10): 1215.
47. Jiang XH, Li HF, Chen ML, et al. Treadmill exercise exerts a synergistic effect with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes on neuronal apoptosis and synaptic-axonal remodeling. Neural Regen Res, 2023, 18(6): 1293-1299.
48. Bobinski F, Teixeira JM, Sluka KA, et al. Interleukin-4 mediates the analgesia produced by low-intensity exercise in mice with neuropathic pain. Pain, 2018, 159(3): 437-450.
49. Li DJ, Li YH, Yuan HB, et al. The novel exercise-induced hormone irisin protects against neuronal injury via activation of the Akt and ERK1/2 signaling pathways and contributes to the neuroprotection of physical exercise in cerebral ischemia. Metabolism, 2017, 68: 31-42.
50. Zhou D, Zhang M, Min L, et al. Cerebral ischemia‐reperfusion is modulated by macrophage‐stimulating 1 through the MAPK‐ERK signaling pathway. J Cell Physiol, 2020, 235(10): 7067-7080.
51. Baek KW, Lee DI, Jeong MJ, et al. Effects of lifelong spontaneous exercise on the M1/M2 macrophage polarization ratio and gene expression in adipose tissue of super-aged mice. Exp Gerontol, 2020, 141: 111091.
52. Tamakoshi K, Maeda M, Murohashi N, et al. Effect of exercise from a very early stage after intracerebral hemorrhage on microglial and macrophage reactivity states in rats. Neuroreport, 2022, 33(7): 304-311.
53. Li F, Geng X, Huber C, et al. In search of a dose: the functional and molecular effects of exercise on post-stroke rehabilitation in rats. Front Cell Neurosci, 2020, 14: 186.
54. Lu J, Wang J, Yu L, et al. Treadmill exercise attenuates cerebral ischemia–reperfusion injury by promoting activation of M2 microglia via upregulation of interleukin-4. Front Cardiovasc Med, 2021, 8: 735485.
55. Zhang L, Yang X, Yin M, et al. An animal trial on the optimal time and intensity of exercise after stroke. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 2020, 52(8): 1699-1709.

West China Medical Journal

Latest ArticlesResearch progress on exercise-mediated regulation of macrophages in cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury mechanisms

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